Political theology between the West and Islamic societies: the debate between religion and authority
Yemen
Yamanat
Adel Al-Sayaghi
introduction
Since the dawn of civilization, religion has been linked to power, and “political theology” constitutes a bridge between the sacred and the ruler. While this concept has developed in the West into a philosophical debate on secularism and authority, in the Islamic world it has remained surrounded by a jurisprudential heritage and a legal discourse that confers sanctity on the ruler or the state. In this article, we present the concept of political theology as it emerged in Western thought and compare it to its Islamic version, highlighting the similarities and differences, as well as the criticisms leveled at it.
First: the concept of political theology in Western thought
1. Carl Schmitt and the classic concept
Carl Schmitt (1888-1985) is considered the most prominent theorist of the concept of “political theology”.
He believes that the political concepts of the modern state (such as sovereignty, legitimacy and the exception) are only secular versions of religious theological concepts.
Example: Just as God miraculously intervenes at an exceptional moment, so the ruler intervenes in a “state of emergency” and transgresses the law.
2. Political theology in the Middle Ages
The Catholic Church linked political power to divine right, where the king was seen as the shadow of God on earth.
Relations between Church and State were complex and often conflicting (pope versus emperor).
3. Secularism and transformation
With the emergence of modernity, there was a gradual separation of church and state.
But political theology has persisted in indirect ways, such as nationalist values or “American destiny” as religious alternatives to political identity.
Second: Political theology in the Islamic context
1. Caliphate and legitimization of power
Since the death of the Prophet Muhammad, a political dispute has arisen under religious cover: who has the right to succeed the prophet?
Concepts such as “allegiance”, “shura” and “right imam” have been developed, which are concepts of a religious nature that regulate governance.
2. The Sultanate and the jurisprudence of obedience
Over time, power transformed into authoritarian authority justified by fatwas.
Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Jama’ah and others set conditions for obedience and forbade rebelling against the sultan, even if he was immoral, “to avoid conflict”.
3. The modern state and political Islam
Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood have developed their own political theology linking Sharia law to governance.
Iran, after the revolution, introduced the “jurist tutelage” model, in which the ruler combines religious and worldly authority.
Saudi Arabia has implemented the “religious protector king” model, in which clerics legitimize the ruler in return.
Third: points of similarity and difference
The Western Side (Schmitt and the Church) The Islamic World
The origin is Christian theological concepts, jurisprudential and Sunni/Shia concepts.
The position of the ruler is the shadow of God or his representative, an imam who assumes obedience.
The legitimizing tool is theology – miracle – obedience – jurisprudence – allegiance – divine destiny
The position of modernity led to secularization, criticism, struggles against secularism and the emergence of political Islam.
Fourth: criticism of political theology
1. The deification of power
This turns the leader into a “representative of God,” which prevents him from being held accountable.
Religion is used as a shield against criticism and opposition.
2. Confusing the sacred and the political
Politics is relative and human, while religion is absolute.
This confusion leads to bloody conflicts because political disagreement is sanctified.
3. Disable the patch
Political theology is used to freeze time and reject change under the guise of maintaining “legitimacy.”
Fifth: is there an alternative?
Arab thinkers such as Muhammad Abed Al-Jabri and Abdullah Al-Arawi have called for rationalizing politics and separating it from religion without opposing it.
Iranian thinker Abdul Karim Soroush proposed the idea of “religion without authority,” calling for the liberation of faith from tyranny.
On the other hand, the conflict continues in some Arab countries between those who demand a “civil state” and those who consider Sharia law as an exclusive source of legislation.
conclusion
Political theology is not only a religious phenomenon, but a mechanism of power that uses the sacred to legitimize the human. It has taken multiple forms in the West and in Islam, but in both cases it has often led to the monopoly of power and the demonization of the opposition. The challenge today is not only to criticize this theology, but to build a modern political vision that balances faith and freedom, and between spiritual values and human rights.
Sources and references
First: Western and foreign sources
1. Carl Schmitt – Political Theology (1922)
Title: Political theology: four chapters on the concept of sovereignty
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Commentary: The fundamental reference for understanding the concept of “political theology” in Western thought.
2. Mark Lilla – The Stillborn God: Religion, Politics and the Modern West (2007)
Explains the development of the relationship between religion and the state in modern Western thought after Schmitt.
3. Talal Asad – Formations of the laity: Christianity, Islam, modernity (2003)
Discusses the critique of Western secularism and compares Christianity and Islam in the production of power.
4. Ernst Kantorowicz – The King’s Two Bodies (1957)
It analyzes the idea that the king has “a secular body and a sacred body”, which is one of the roots of Western political theology.
Second: Arabic and Islamic sources
5. Muhammad Abed Al-Jabri – The Arab political mind
Publisher: Center for Studies on Arab Unity
He discusses the intersection of religion and politics in Arab heritage and analyzes the foundations of legitimate tyranny.
6. Abdullah Al-Arawi – The concept of State
A critical analysis of the concepts of the modern state in Arab thought, relating them to religious and jurisprudential heritage.
7. Abdel-Ilah Belqziz – The State in Islamic Thought
Publisher: Center for Studies on Arab Unity
It examines how Muslim jurists have conceptualized the state and the caliphate, and relates this to religious legitimacy.
8. Azmi Bishara – Religion and secularism in a historical context (two parts)
Publisher: Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies
An encyclopedic work explaining how relations between religion and state developed in the West and the Islamic world.
9. Muhammad Arkoun – The tendency towards humanization in Islamic thought
It presents a bold critique of the idea of authority in Islam and calls for the separation of religion and state.
10. Abdul Karim Soroush – Prolonging the prophetic experience
An important Iranian work rejects the “tutelage of the jurist” and calls for the liberation of religion from authority.
Third: academic articles and research
11. “Political theology according to Carl Schmitt” – Dr. Muhammad Al-Nawaisa
Journal of Political Thought – Damascus University (2020)
12. “Religion and politics in Islam: the dialectic of text and authority” – Dr. Radwan Al-Sayed
Magazine of the Arab Future, number 325
13. “The Governance and Shura Controversy in Islamic Political Jurisprudence” – Dr. Radwan Ziadeh
Research published in Al Jazeera Study Center Conference Proceedings (2012)
14. “Rethinking politics and holiness” – Yassin Haj Saleh
Published on the “Al-Modon” and “Al-Jumhuriya” websites
Fourth: Useful links for free reading (free articles and resources)
A complete Arabic translation of Carl Schmitt’s book “Political Theology”:
Translated article: “Carl Schmitt and exceptional power” – Philosophy Magazine:
Article: “Between religion and the State: in the critique of political theology” – Omran Study Center:
Yemen